48 Chapter 2 (i.e., aimed to promote work) is also implied in the instructions we gave participants prior to answering the items and in the formulation of the items. Nevertheless, while we believe that proactively working on one’s levels of vitality should result in, for example, higher levels of work engagement, the reverse, or, a reciprocal relationship, is conceivable as well (i.e., where highly engaged individuals are willing and inclined to invest more in their work by proactively managing their vitality). The interrelatedness of proactive vitality management and work engagement/vigor is also represented in the relatively high correlations between these constructs, as compared to correlations with other variables that we used to establish convergent validity. Another limitation is that, with the exception of cognitive performance – which we measured using the Remote Associates Test (RAT; Mednick, 1968), most of the variables weremeasured using self-reports. Work-related, objective measures of (creative) performance are difficult to realize in practice and are a recurring subject of discussion (e.g., Zhou & Shalley, 2003). However, being able to predict quantifiable changes in work performance in field research would add to the significance of proactive vitality management. Finally, even though the samples that were used were quite heterogeneous regarding the range of industries and professions participants worked in, some of the sample characteristics may have been less representative of the entire workforce. That is, the participants were relatively highly educated and a considerable proportion of the samples held supervisory positions. Workers with relatively high levels of autonomy or skill variety may have more opportunities to engage in proactive vitality management, and/or to engage in specific strategies that are not practical or possible in all occupations. However, we argue that all workers in all industries and occupations may use proactive vitality management, as there are numerous possible strategies, small or more elaborate, that people may use. Future Research Future research may help to gain more insights into the specific mechanisms underlying proactive vitality management in relation to work performance and other relevant outcomes. The general tendency to use proactive vitality management may possibly be relatively stable. However, as suggested by the results of the diary study, the need and opportunity to do so may fluctuate considerably due to individual and momentary needs and preferences, and due to the nature of one’s work. The fluctuating nature of proactive vitality management opens up further possibilities for multilevel research. So far, studies have barely incorporated individual or contextual factors that
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