Martine van der Pluijm

56 Chapter 2 in their knowledge about activities that trigger language development (Aarts, Demir-Vegter, Kurvers, & Henrichs, 2016; Scheele, 2010). Parental literacy skills should be used as an additional indicator to define the target group, which has only been reported scarcely (Manz et al., 2010; Senechal, 2008; 2012). However, testing literacy skills can be intrusive and time-consuming. Self reports and observations may be useful alternatives to estimate literacy levels, for instance, based on observations of parents filling out a form or when reading with their child. More detailed descriptions of the characteristics of lower-educated target groups allow researchers to conduct more systematic comparisons of interventions directed at these groups. More research investigating the effectiveness of family literacy interventions that use talk and play activities adapted to family situations to promote oral language development of young children is recommended. Our findings suggest that such adapted talk and play activities are more effective for lower-educated parents than fixed (pre-programmed) activities emphasizing the use of print. There seems to be a tendency in the literature to prioritize family literacy interventions that focus on school-related activities and literacy skills instead of on the family context. In contrast, we suggest focusing on how to contribute to more effective parental support of emergent literacy development by using families’ social cultural resources. This research should focus on interventions aimed to adapt to and influence parental knowledge and beliefs. Finally, we have some recommendations that can expand our knowledge about the effectiveness of interventions directed at talk and play activities. First, it is important to pay attention to precise descriptions of the investigated activities and strategies. We excluded a substantial number of studies for this review due to a lack of information about the intervention. Second, further research should investigate if activities can contribute to oral language and literacy development simultaneously. Third, in light of the complexity of oral language skills, researchers could use a variety of posttests that can provide insight into the effectiveness of the intervention, for example, the amount of oral language (i.e., word count) and standardized tests (e.g., productive vocabulary). Only three studies used combinations of these types of posttests. We recommend the use of posttests to measure children’s oral language development in both the first (home) and second language to be able to appreciate effects in both languages. Implications for practice We have three recommendations for practitioners who aim to support lower-educated parents to promote oral language at home. First, we suggest using talk and play activities and a combination of responsive communication and oral language strategies. Suitable activities include storytelling, sharing experiences about past events, or forms of social play. The main goal should be to support parents to facilitate the child to be an equal discussion partner leading to an enrichment of the child’s vocabulary. Three basic steps can support parents to