Esther Mertens

72 | Chapter 4 have been related to less use of effective coping strategies, such as problem solving and cognitive restructuring, and more use of problematic coping strategies, such as disengagement, a focus on negative emotions, and coping through substance use (Connor-Smith & Flachsbart, 2007). According to the Risk moderation hypothesis (Spoth, Shin, Guyll, Redmond, & Azevedo, 2006), especially individuals who experiences difficulties in certain competencies or experience problems might benefit most from interventions as they have most potential to improve. This compensatory effect has been found particularly in school-based interventions (e.g., Verdurmen, Koning, Vollebergh, Van den Eijnden, & Engels, 2014). Personality traits could also affect the extent to which individuals can effectively transfer skills learned during an intervention to their daily lives. Actually applying the new skills in daily life facilitates generalization of the skills which possibly increases intervention effects. In particular, Conscientiousness and Openness to experiences could be relevant for transferring skills. Individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness are generally able to inhibit initial responses, are persevering, and are planful (Shiner & Caspi, 2003). Participants with these characteristics might be better able to inhibit initial responses of old behaviors and deliberately implement skills learned during the intervention than participants with lower levels of Conscientiousness. Individuals with high levels of Openness to experiences are characterized by an open mind and an interest in novel experiences (Shiner & Caspi, 2003). They tend to be flexible and have the ability to acquire and consider new perspectives and skills (Connor-Smith & Flachsbart, 2007). Individuals with high levels of Openness might have a more positive and open attitude towards the intervention and aremore interested in its novelties. Their high interest together with a flexible attitude couldmake it easier for them to implement the newly learned skills than for participants with lower levels of Openness. Thus, individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness or Openness to experiences might benefit more from an intervention, as they might apply, and generalize, the learned skills more easily in their daily lives than individuals with low levels of these traits. Previous intervention research showed that personality traits can indeedmoderate intervention effects. However, the results do not show a clear pattern of traits that affect intervention effects in the intra- and interpersonal domains in general or on specific competencies and problems. In the intrapersonal domain, for instance, Senf and Liau (2013) found stronger intervention effects for individuals with high levels of Extraversion on both happiness and depressive symptoms. Additionally, stronger intervention effects on happiness were found for individuals with high levels of Openness to experiences. Huppert and Johnson (2010) found no moderating effects of Extraversion and Openness on wellbeing and resilience, but did find stronger intervention effects on wellbeing for individuals with high levels of Agreeableness and Neuroticism. De Vibe and colleagues (2015) also found stronger intervention effects on wellbeing for individuals with high levels of Neuroticism, but not for Agreeableness. Contrarily, Wang and colleagues (2017) found no personality traits that moderated intervention effects on wellbeing. In the interpersonal domain, Stoltz and