Bibian van der Voorn

178 CHAPTER 11 response (i.e., the peak value after awakening minus the value immediately after awakening) as well as the AUC increase was not significantly different between the sexes. This was also found by Bouma et al. (2009) 41 (n=644, age: 16.1±0.6 years) and Dietrich et al. (2013) 42 (n=1604, age: 11.1±0.6 years), who reported on the same cohort (albeit at different ages) and found higher morning cortisol concentrations in girls, but a similar response to awakening in boys and girls, manifesting as a higher AUCg in girls but a similar AUCi between sexes. Additionally, Bae et al. (2015) 36 (n=138, 10.7±1.7 years) found higher cortisol levels in girls at awakening and 30 minutes after awakening, although they did not find sex differences in the AUCg. Fransson et al. (2014) 31 (n=157, age: 14-16 years) and Hatzinger et al. (2007) 43 (n=102, age: 4.9±0.4 years) both found a higher CAR in girls, and Pruessner et al. (1997) 44 (n=42, age: 11.2±2.0 years) showed a tendency towards larger increases in girls compared to boys. Morin-Major et al. (2016) 28 (n=88, age: 14.5±1.8 years) found a correlation between the CAR and sex, with a higher CAR in girls. Contrastingly, Jones et al. (2006) 14 (n=140, age: 7-9 years) found the CAR to be absent in girls, but present in boys. PROTOCOLLED SOCIAL STRESS TESTS SIMILAR OR EQUAL TO THE TSST-C Twenty-one studies (with the data of 3,500 subjects) examined responses to standardized social stress tests. Eighteen used the TSST-C (validated in children aged ≥7 years), while three used other laboratory-based social stress tests that closely resemble the TSST-C 41,45,46 : the Groningen Social Stress Test (GSST) which consists of a 6-minute speech, a brief interlude and a subtracting task, and a psychosocial stress test which consisted of a mental arithmetic task, a public speaking task and a computer mathematics task. Eight studies, of which two studied the same cohort, did not find sex differences, 36,47-53 while 13 did find sex differences. Ji et al. (2016) 54 (n=135, age: boys: 9, 11 or 13 years; girls: 8, 10 or 12 years) reported on the same cohort as Dockray et al. (2009) 48 and Peckins et al. (2012) 50 , who did not find sex differences. However, Ji et al. found that at wave 3, where each wave is separated by six months, girls had a stronger cortisol response to the stressor, although they did not find sex differences with regard to cortisol recovery. Raikkonen et al. (2010) 55 (n=292, age: 8.1±0.3 years) and Martikainen et al. (2013) 29 (n=252, age: 8.1±0.3 years) reported on the same cohort, and found a higher peak after stress and higher AUCs (both ground and increase) in girls, while no pre-test differences were found. De Veld (2012) 56 (n=158, age: 10.61±0.52 years) found a stronger cortisol response in girls. Jones et al. (2006) 14 (n=140, age: 7-9 years) found an anticipatory rise in cortisol in both sexes, but only an additional increase after the TSST-C in girls. Evans et al. (2013) 45 (n=707, age: 13.8±3.6 years) found that girls aged ≤12 years displayed higher cortisol reactivity to the psychological stress test, while sex differences were