Carl Westin

7-4 Limitations and pitfalls of strategic conformance 171 There are, however, aspects that may argue against heterogeneity, which instead advocates homogeneity and the suppressing of individual differences. Personal- ized automation may work against proceduralized environments like ATC, where supervision and handovers from one controller to another require an understanding of what the previous controller is doing and why. In safety-critical domains, stan- dardized operating procedures facilitate increased predictability and repeatability of situations, which in turn, supports safety and effective teamwork. Furthermore, homogeneity allows for the definition and evaluation of global performance and capacity constraints. These may be undermined by the increased recognition of in- dividual differences in key performance measures of performance and capacity that affect sectorization and staffing. The flight deck is a good example of a safety-critical environment where homo- geneity in automated support systems and standard operating procedures (defining system interaction) traditionally has worked well. Although accidents are rare, sev- eral accidents have been attributed to poor human-automation collaboration linked to opaque automated systems that do not explain its reasoning (e.g., Air Asiana flight 214, 151 Air France flight 447, 284 Turkish Airlines flight 1951 285 ). There is a need to increase the transparency of such systems, for example in regards to their current mode, function, and operational limitations. 186, 187, 286 A further, comple- mentary approach, would be to consider conformal automation and afford hetero- geneity in pilot-system cooperation by personalizing the interaction. 7-4-9 Personalized automation Results support the general claim made by previous researchers that future au- tomation increasingly needs to embrace individual differences in problem-solving tasks. 154, 155, 198 Automation etiquette studies have highlighted the need to consider the automation’s communication style and timing in relation to operator prefer- ences. 114, 120 Researchers on anthropomorphism have argued that a system similar to the operator in appearance can benefit trust in that system. 287 Recommender sys- tems research has explored the use of explanations and justifications for supporting action and decision advice. 211 Design approaches are needed that can combine requirements of standardized operations with the allowance for individual differences in human perception and problem-solving. Conformal automation emphasizes personalization in relation to the operator’s cognition. Findings reported herein can benefit the development of personalized CD&R decision aids. With consistency limited to the first decision stages of each classification, it may be relatively easy to model and personalize a conflict resolution aid. A challenge, however, is that the human may adapt her/his problem-solving (affecting conformance) as a response to the system adapting.