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65 Cause-and-effect questions - ask the degree of impact and what caused the observed impact or change. The cause-and-effect help test the theory of change. These questions are often asked at the goal and outcome (purpose) level of the hierarchy of objectives. Cause-and-effect questions should shows degree of change, show the effect of observed change, predict and explain change. This is why effect sizes are often reported when cause-and-effect questions are used. Table 4.8 below show the purpose and example of cause-and-effect questions. Table 6: Purpose and Examples of Cause and Effect Questions Purpose Example of question Assess degree of change How many children attend school now as a result of the feeding programme? Show effect Was the observed increased quality of life as a result of the empowerment of women in these families Explain cause What caused the degree in HIV infections? Predict outcome Is the increased enrolment in preschool going to predict income levels in adulthood? Evaluations that use experimental and longitudinal designs are the ones that often use cause-and- effect type of questions. Focus Box 4 shows an example of such an evaluation study. Focus Box 4: An Evaluation Study using a Randomised-Control Trial for the Teachers’ Diploma Programme on Psychosocial Care, Support and Protection in Zambian Government Primary Schools Orphaned and vulnerable children (OVC) experience poverty, stigma, and abuse resulting in poor physical, emotional, and psychological outcomes. The Teachers’ Diploma Programme on Psychosocial Care, Support, and Protection is a child-centered 15-month long-distance learning programme focused on providing teachers with the knowledge and skills to enhance their school environments, foster psychosocial support, and facilitate school- community relationships. A randomised controlled trial was implemented in 2013–2014. The main question was, “Does the Teacher’ Diploma Programme on teachers’ cause changes in students’ perceived psychosocial well- being, skills and performance, school environment, and interpersonal relationships?” Both teachers (n=325) and students (n=1378) were assessed at baseline and 15-months post-intervention from randomly assigned primary schools in Lusaka and Eastern Provinces, Zambia. Multilevel linear mixed models (MLM) indicate positive significant changes for intervention teachers on outcomes related to self-care, teaching resources, safety, social support, and gender equity. Positive outcomes for intervention students related to future orientation, respect, support, safety, sexual abuse, and bullying. Outcomes support the hypothesis that teachers and students benefit from a programme designed to enhance teachers’ psychosocial skills and knowledge. Source : Kaljee et. al ., (2016)