Given Hapunda

70 This (proxy) indicator would read: % of trained TBAs who have attended to HIV pregnant women. 5. Ratio – this type of indicator shows the relation between two amounts showing the number of times one value contains or is contained within the other. Example of ratio indicator is ratio of teachers to pupils in primary schools. Unfortunately some people use ratios as proxy indicators. 6. Rate – this type of an indicator is used to quantify the probability of a rare event. Like a proxy, you need a numerator and denominator. Depending on the population from which the rate is being calculated, the obtained value can be rated with 1000, 10,000 etc., e.g., death rate per 1000 population. 7. Indices – this type of indicator is based on a composite statistic on a number of indicators. The composite score can be based on indicators such as health, education, life expectancy, CO 2 emission, income per capita. An example of this type of an indicator is the human development (HD) index, climate change performance index, political stability index, investor confidence index, gender development index etc. Indicators such as these are not easy to formulate and calculate as a result they are not common in M&E. Yet indices indicators give a clear and broad state or condition of a project, programme or policy. The general formula for calculating indices is: For construction of HD index, fixed maximum and minimum values have been established for each of these indicators (UNDP, 1995):  Life expectancy at birth: 25-85 years  Adult literacy: 0%-100%  Combined enrolment ratio: 0%-100%  Real GDP per capita $100 - $40,000 Let us say life expectancy is 65 for a Zambian at birth, then the index for life expectancy would be: Life expectancy index of 0.67 would be relatively good. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), has also provided a tool for calculating the human development index and gender development index in Excel or STATA which you can obtain