Vincent de Leijster

24 Chapter 2 We studied agroecological transitions in two land-use systems, an almond production system in Spain and a coffee production system in Colombia. The case studies vary in the type of agroecological interventions, main farming strategies, incentives, and in some of the ecosystem services that were measured (Figure 1-3). In addition, the agroecological landscapes in which the study areas were located varied in biophysical conditions, and the historical economic conditions concerning the main product were also different; this is discussed in this chapter. Most importantly, the two case studies vary in the time over which the impact of agroecological interventions was measured, with the almond case study providing a detailed short-term perspective and the coffee case study giving a long-term perspective. By choosing case studies with such diverse characteristics, I aimed at improving my understanding of agroecological transitions in a broader context. The goal was not to compare the two systems, but to understand which generic elements (land management interventions, incentives, and farming strategies) are effective in facilitating a balance between ecological and economic outcomes. 2.1 Biophysical conditions Both study regions, the Colombian coffee production landscape and the Spanish almond production landscape, have been biophysically degraded; however, in both regions land degradation consists of different ecological and human-induced processes (Figure 2-1). The Spanish study area is located in Andalusia, a region with very high desertification risks (REDIAM, Junta de Andalucía, 2020). This desertification is partly driven by changing climate conditions, with precipitation falling less often but more forcefully (Machado et al., 2011). In addition, the land-management of woody crops, which cover 22% of Andalusia (Junta de Andalucía, 2015), accelerates the land degradation because these lands are frequently tilled to prevent the growth of natural vegetation (Meerkerk et al., 2008). This management increases erosion and runoff rates (Durán Zuazo & Rodríguez Pleguezuelo, 2008), removes soil organic material (Almagro et al., 2016; Ramos et al., 2011), and threatens biodiversity (Cucci et al., 2016; Fracchiolla et al., 2015; Gómez et al., 2017); all of these exacerbate land degradation. Furthermore, this case study region is biophysically characterized by low precipitation levels (300-400 mm) and long periods of droughts (Cruz Pardo et al., 2010), as well as by low soil organic matter contents (<2%; Almagro et al., 2016; Ramos et al., 2011). Risaralda, the department in Colombia in which the second case study is located, is placed between the Central and Occidental Cordilleras (Andean mountain ranges) of Colombia. More specifically, the study sites were located on the eastern foothills of the Occidental Cordillera (Figure 2-1.e). This zone was originally classified as cloud forest, but it has