Vincent de Leijster

32 Chapter 3 showed no relationship between provisioning and cultural services and suggested that this is likely because the services are not responding to a common driver. The formation of bundles, trade-offs and no-effect relationships among ecosystem services due to restoration practices in agricultural landscapes has been addressed by only a few studies. For example, Schulte et al. (2017) showed that adding strips of natural vegetation in corn–soybean fields in Iowa (United States) can simultaneously improve pollination, habitat provisioning and mitigation of soil erosion and runoff without compromising revenue. However, Raudsepp-Hearne et al. (2010) found strong trade-offs between multiple provisioning and regulating services in an agricultural landscape in Canada. It is therefore still unclear whether there are generalized patterns of bundles and trade-offs, as the studies to date did not quantify the interactions between the multiple ecosystem services through time and space, neither have they identified potential drivers. In order to understand the complex relationships between ecosystem services, more research on the rehabilitation of ecosystem services and their mutual interactions is needed (Bennett et al., 2009). Agroecological management has been proposed as an alternative to conventional agricultural management because of the presumed better balance in ecosystem services it provides and the rehabilitating effect it may have (Bommarco et al., 2013; Caron et al., 2014), making it an interesting system in which to investigate ecosystem service interactions. Kassam et al. (2012) and Altieri (2002) propose the following four principles of agroecological soil management: minimum mechanical soil disturbance, permanent understory vegetation, application of organic amendments, and diversification of the plant species. In Europe, the Mediterranean region is highly susceptible to land degradation, due to the local biophysical and climatic conditions and the prevailing land management (Parras-Alcántara et al., 2016). Woody fruit-crop systems currently cover 22% of the southern Spanish autonomous community of Andalusia (Junta de Andalucía, 2015) and are mostly managed conventionally, i.e. by frequent tillage which removes understory vegetation (Meerkerk et al., 2008). Conventional agricultural management maximizes the ecosystem service ‘food provisioning’, which may disrupt the balance with regulating, supporting and other provisioning ecosystem services (Kremen and Miles, 2012). For example, compared to agroecological management, conventional management in Mediterranean woody-crop systems resulted in 20–40% less understory vegetation cover (Cucci et al., 2016; Fracchiolla et al., 2015), 32-51% lower soil organic carbon content (Almagro et al., 2016; Ramos et al., 2011), 27–86% less efficient breakdown of organic phosphorus compounds in the soil (Hernández et al., 2005; Ramos et al., 2011), increased erosion and runoff, and reduced pest control and pollination services (Durán Zuazo et al., 2008b; Eilers and Klein, 2009; Klein et