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Chapter 1 3 should focus on how to optimise human behaviour, to the level of the flourishing human being. 5 These theories are partly based on the same source (Aristotle) as much contemporary philosophical work on human flourishing, including some of the theories that are the main point of interest in this dissertation. However, positive psychology is also based on empirical research and aims to develop (psychological) interventions with which the flourishing of human beings can be improved. Popularisation of these theories has led to slogans such as “learn how to flourish!”, and websites such as www.howtoflourish.nl . 6 The movement of positive psychology receives criticism from the field of philosophy of education. For example Ruth Cigman argues that embedding ‘the positive ideal’ in educational policy-making is problematic. 7 She gives the example of the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) programme that teaches children to be positive about themselves. But, Cigman argues, when these aspects are taught as ‘life skills’ (which contribute to children’s flourishing), ‘we may be missing the vital detail, the needs of particular children in the circumstances of their lives’. 8 Should for instance a child who has just bullied another child be encouraged to praise herself for who she is, or what she did? I share these concerns, and although they are not the primary interest of this dissertation, part of what motivates me to investigate current philosophical theories on flourishing as an aim of education is to be able to argue that perhaps some of these ‘how to flourish’ theories make assumptions that are not in accordance with the concept of human flourishing. Moreover, if these psychological theories in part use the same philosophical literature concerning flourishing, I wonder whether the current philosophical theories on education for flourishing can be sharpened or made more clear, in order to contribute to a better understanding of the concept of human flourishing and of how it can best serve as an aim of education and/or optimal human development in general. This dissertation is a work in philosophy of education, and concentrates on educational philosophy. White, Kristjánsson, Brighouse, and De Ruyter explicitly explore the concept of human flourishing. They see it as their task to clarify what is meant by flourishing as an aim of education, and discuss which conceptions of flourishing are fruitful as an aim of education and how education can further the child’s development into a flourishing adult. The bulk of their work on human flourishing as an aim of education focuses on what educators and parents should do to equip children to be able to lead flourishing lives. 5 See Seligman and Csikzentmihalyi 2000, and see Bohlmeijer et al. 2013, for an up-to-date overview of well- being/flourishing research. 6 See for example this recent article in a Dutch newspaper: https://www.trouw.nl/home/somberen-hoeft-niet- meer~a9438396/. 7 See Cigman 2008 and 2012, and see for example also Suissa 2008. 8 Cigman 2012, p. 453.