Dorien Bangma

218 | CHAPTER 9 characteristics related to PD and MS were evaluated ( chapters 3, 4 and 8 ). The first study presented in this thesis ( chapter 3 ) specifically focused on the relation between age and FDM in a non-clinical sample of individuals of 18 years or older without significant physical or mental health issues. With regard to financial competence (as measured with the Financial Competence Assessment Inventory and the Financial Decision-Making Interview), the capability to make financial decisions seems to be stable while aging normally. According to the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition (STAC; Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Reuter- Lorenz & Park, 2014), an increased (pre-)frontal activation when becoming older enables individuals to adapt and compensate for cognitive decline related to information processing typical for normal aging. Furthermore, increased (financial) knowledge and experience and improved affective decision-making may compensate for decreased cognitive functioning that accompanies normal aging (Hess, 2015; Li et al., 2004; Mikels et al., 2013; Peters et al., 2007). Some studies, evaluating a clinical sample of patients with MCI or PD, did report that a higher age was associated with lower performances on tests of financial competence ( chapter 4 ). Age was, however, also found to be related to an increase in disease severity which possibly mediates the relation between financial competence and age in these clinical samples. Several other studies including patients with an NDD have not found a relation between FDM and age ( chapter 4 ). When an activity had a high cognitive demand, as is suggested for making decisions based on specific decision rules, compensation and adaptation however seemed to be inadequate since this activity got more difficult when becoming older ( chapter 3 ). On the other hand, age was found to have a positive influence on the tendency to buy on impulse ( chapters 3 and 8 ). Regarding sex, evidence was found that females have a stronger tendency to buy on impulse and more often use a dependent financial decision style than males ( chapter 8 ). Furthermore, lower performances on financial competence tests in female patients with AD were observed compared to male patients, however, results were mixed and the effect of sex was not evaluated in patients with other NDDs ( chapter 4 ). The influence of sex on other aspects of FDM was not examined in this thesis and it is, therefore, not possible to draw clear and reliable conclusions on the influence of sex on FDM capability. A higher level of education was found to be related to a better financial competence in a non-clinical sample ( chapter 3 ) and in patients with MCI and AD ( chapter 4 ). Also, FDM based on specific decision rules was found to be positively influenced by level of education. Level of education was, furthermore, negatively associated with the use of an intuitive decision style while making financial decisions. A positive association was found between level of education and the use of a rational financial decision style, although results were inconclusive and depending on the sample evaluated ( chapters 3 and 8 ). Consistent with these findings is the observation that individuals with a higher gross annual year income, which is in general related to higher levels of education (Moonen et al., 2011), seemed to have a better financial competence and made less frequently use of an intuitive decision style compared to individuals with lower income levels ( chapters 3 and 8 ). With regard to the relation between income level and other aspects of FDM, such as the tendency to buy on impulse or the ability to make financial decisions with implication for the future, no relation or inconclusive results were found in a non-clinical sample ( chapter 3 ). The influence of income on FDM was however not