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Fostering overseas success: A meta-analysis 109 supervisors provide social resources that are unique to their supervisory role (e.g., feedback and task supervision). Such resources can aid expatriates directly in adjusting and performing in their jobs whereas they may instigate indirect cycles of reciprocity, leading to improved commitment, performance, and retention during and after assignments. On the other hand, supervisory support may also contribute to international assignment success indirectly through its effect on employees’ overall perceptions of organizational support (Kurtessis et al., 2017). Supervisors are in an excellent position to provide valuable social resources, such as career guidance, that reinforce perceptions of organizational support. Future research could explore whether synergies exist. For example, expatriates who perceive assistance from both their supervisors, their organizations, and/or their mentors may respond more strongly. Following our moderation analysis, scholars could also explore whether the similarity between supervisors and their expatriate reports affects the value of their support. Potentially effective leader-membership exchanges are inhibited by cultural barriers, as the preferred communication styles may differ across cultures, or by physical barriers, as long-distance virtual communication may demand a different leadership style. 5.6.3 Spousal Support Finally, our results highlight the criticality of the family in the expatriation process, particularly the spouse. Spousal support improved expatriates’ adjustment considerably and this is likely a result of crossover effects, where the attitudes and behaviors of an expatriate are influenced by those of another individual, or vice versa (Takeuchi, Yun, & Tesluk, 2002). Family members often experience trouble adjusting, having sacrificed their personal social network and, possibly, their career (Cole & Nesbeth, 2012; McNulty, 2012; Shaffer, Harrison, Gilley, & Luk, 2001). The negative effects of this may crossover to the expatriate, affecting his/her adjustment (Caliguiri, Hyland, Joshi, & Bross, 1998; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998; Takeuchi, Yun, & Tesluk, 2002). Moreover, spillover effects – where an expatriate’s experiences in one domain influence an outcome in another domain (Takeuchi, Yun, & Tesluk, 2002) – also occurred in relation to family support. For instance, we found a strong association between spousal support and the retention of expatriates, suggesting that whether international assignments are completed is often a family decision. Additional spillover occurred in relation to performance. Based on social exchange theory, we had expected that performance at work would primarily be influenced by the social support expatriates received from within the work domain. However, expatriates who felt supported by their family seemed to better focus their time and effort on the job, enabling them to excel in their assignments. The substantial effects estimated in this meta- analysis indicated that family support, particularly by the spouse, is an equally important antecedent for expatriates’ work performance as the daily assistance provided by peers and mentors. This is highlighted by the location of spousal support in Figure 5.3, among the work-domain support constructs and relatively close to the success criteria. In sum, researchers and practitioners should not neglect the perceptions and attitudes of the expatriate family when examining expatriate success.