136 Chapter 5 consortium, held foresight processes to guide climate decision-making. The regions are diverse in socio-economic, political, and security conditions, but have climate vulnerability and dependence on foreign assistance in common. The authors (four of whom worked for CCAFS at the time of research) have extensive networks and experience working on foresight for anticipatory governance in these four regions, and could therefore rely on valuable access to anticipation processes (Vervoort et al., 2014). In these regional contexts, we wanted to focus on the most vulnerable countries and therefore limited our scope to five countries in each region. We included those countries with the lowest GDP: a) Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso for West Africa, b) Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala for Central America, c) Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Philippines, and Indonesia for Southeast Asia, and d) Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, and India for South Asia. We later added Costa Rica as a 21st country; while Costa Rica does not fit our GDP criteria, its unique approach to anticipation helps support a stronger analysis by contrast. The set includes 3 low-income countries, 14 lower-middle-income countries and 1 upper middle income with high poverty and inequality, and 1 upper middle income with high inequality (The World Bank, 2020). Within these countries, we searched for influential examples of anticipation and limited our scope to processes that aimed to inform climate governance. We proceeded as follows. A team of four researchers (one for each region, of which the first author was the global coordinator) searched academic literature for publications on processes of anticipation. We searched on Scopus using the following keywords to include anticipation that intended to inform policy: [country] AND development AND policy AND climate AND change AND future. We read all abstracts and included papers with at least two of the following keywords: future, adaptation, anticipation, scenario, and foresight. This resulted in 11 academic articles on anticipatory processes in West Africa, 1 paper in Central America, 5 in Southeast Asia, and 0 in South Asia. We then looked for important national climate policies on Google, including government websites and UN websites (e.g., adaptation-un.org) to examine if anticipation was used. Third, as we noticed that many policies were not published online, we used a snowball technique and asked foresight experts in each region to help verify and complement the selection of anticipation processes and policies found. The snowballing started with the regional CCAFS experts, who pointed to influential anticipation processes and climate policies. Based on these findings were other experts contacted, and so on (Verschuren & Doorewaard, 2010). Through this snowball technique, another 4 processes were included for West Africa, 0 for Southeast Asia (because there were already many relevant policy documents included that had used anticipation), 13 for South Asia, and 14 for Central America. In addition, we included national and sectoral policy documents that address climate change and had been initiated in the last decade (since 2008, as the research
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