CHAPTER 2. Communicative Language Teaching 29 system consisting of many separate parts that can be combined in di erent ways, but as a holistic meaning-making entity that emerges through use. For language learning to occur, usage-based proponents do not rely on an innately available and separate language learning device that has come to characterize language learning in Chomksyan theories (cf. Chomsky, 2009), but rather language is learned by making use of general learning mechanisms, such as the ability to perceive, associate and schematize (Ellis & Wul , 2019). A USAGE-BASED PERSPECTIVE From a usage-based perspective, language is meaning-driven and consists of meaningful units which are conventionalized through use and interaction (Schmid, 2015), and language is seen as a complex adaptive system, which itself may consist of di erent subsystems (e.g., phonology, lexicon, syntax, etc.), but these subsystems do not operate in isolation and instead continuously interact over time, with each other and with other non-language speci c (sub)systems (like motivation and general aptitude) (Schmid, 2015). As the continuous interaction of these complex (sub)systems is unique per individual, individually owned and o en non-linear and unpredictable developmental paths emerge. By extension of Schmitt and Schmitt’s language learning theory (Schmitt& Schmitt, 2000), the basic linguistic units in usage-based language theories are units (Langacker, 2007), also referred to as constructions (Ellis, 2013). All constructions consist of a given form with associated meaning, which need to be learned in conjunction by a learner. e learning of these constructions, o en referred to as form-use-meaning mapping, is essential in SLA and takes place by association. In such associative learning, input frequency plays an important role by de nition: the more frequent a construction appears in the input, the better this construction is learned and entrenched. As its activation level increases, and the construction is more readily available for subsequent use (Ellis, 2013). In a usage-based approach, the e ectiveness of the form-use-meaning mapping process can be a ected by aspects like saliency, redundancy and noticing. Every language typically expresses concepts (meanings) by means of di erent forms and learners tend to block certain forms once a basic form is activated repeatedly. In naturalistic, usagebased settings, learners are invited to learn e ciently by focusing on this basic variety of highly reliable forms (saliency) and by ignoring forms that hardly contribute to communication (redundancy). As many features of L2 input have a low frequency, a low saliency and a high redundancy, a certain degree of intentionally focused attention (noticing) is needed to help learners notice these forms and integrate them in their linguistic repertoire (Schmidt, 2001).
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