Chapter 6 120 effectiveness of VR training. This can contribute to the development of theories on presence, immersion, and virtual embodiment, which are important concepts in the field of VR and can have implications for other domains such as healthcare (e.g., training medical first responders to perform under stress), education, and entertainment (e.g., VR arcades). Third, the examination of the training responses and sense of presence of police officers during VR and real-life training (Chapter 3) can provide insights into the differences between the two modes of training and their respective strengths and weaknesses. This can contribute to the development of theories on simulation and training transfer, which are important concepts in the field of training and can have implications for other domains such as aviation, military, and healthcare. Overall, the theoretical implications of this thesis can contribute to the advancement of knowledge and understanding in the fields of instructional design, model-learning, provision of feedback, presence, simulation, and training management, and can have implications for various domains and industries beyond law enforcement. DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Virtual Reality as a training tool for first responders, particularly in the context of complex, stressful, and high-risk situations is becoming increasingly popular (Zechner et al., 2023; Binsch et al., 2022). With the increase in popularity, research surrounding the topic of VR is emerging (see for instance Garcia, 2019; McAllister et al., 2022; Kent, 2022; Kent & Hughes, 2022; Harris et al., 2021; Saunders et al., 2019). Most research until now has focused on the advantages of VR for first-responder training (e.g., Giessing, 2021; Murtinger et al., 2021; Hsu et al., 2013), immersion of VR (e.g., Skarbez et al., 2018; Stevens & Kincaid, 2015; Garcia, 2019), and the responses that VR elicits (Kleygrewe, Hutter, Koedijk, et al., 2023). In addition to the existing body of research, future research should consider assessing (i) VR experiences on a behavioral level, (ii) the influence of multi-sensory experiences, and (iii) the efficacy of VR to promote specific skills and knowledge. First, to advance the use and efficacy of VR as a training tool for police practice, future research should investigate the behavioral responses of police officers to VR training. Police officers have to perform a variety of behaviors on the job (Koedijk et al., 2021); police officers should therefore be able to produce and respond with the same behaviors during a virtual training. Taking a behavioral approach to assessing the efficacy of VR as a training tool provides insights into how the performance during training transfers to on-the job performance. Scarfe and Glennerster (2019) suggest that instead of assessing a VR-specific measure such as sense of
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