General Introduction 17 1 of on-duty weapons in VR) and aimed to create training scenarios that realistically capture the experiences and constraints that trainees may encounter on duty (Chapters 3-5). To this end, we sampled training scenarios from the specific performance environment (Pinder et al., 2011). Because VR provides a virtual simulation of an environment, in a next step, we ensured to specifically assess sense of presence (i.e., the feeling of truly being there in the virtual environment; Slater & Wilbur, 1997) and the experience of ecological validity of the virtual environment (Lessiter et al., 2001; not to confuse with ecological validity as defined by Brunswik, see Araujo et al., 2007). We did so to ensure that trainees experienced that the virtual training environment provided equally representative opportunities for perception and action as their performance environment (e.g., realistic context, realistic problems, and realistic solutions; Hutter et al., in press). Cognitive Load Theory Cognitive load theory (CLT; Van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005; Sweller, 2011) describes how the working memory impacts learning. The theory states that human working memory has a limited capacity and that cognitive load (i.e., the amount of mental effort required to process information) affects learning. According to CLT, a training session should be designed in such a way that it manages intrinsic load effectively (e.g., by differentiating to the level of trainees), reduces extraneous load (e.g., by omitting all unnecessary complexities from task design and instruction), and maximizes germane load (e.g., by providing task design and instructions that refer directly to learning). VR police training is oftentimes a new experience for police officers and therefore may require a different instructional design than the scenario-based training they are used to. To explore the cognitive load that trainees experience in VR, we measure mental effort (via a visual analogue scale) in VR (Chapters 3 and 4) and explore which specific factors lead to the investment of mental effort in VR training (Chapter 2). STUDY AIMS AND STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS The studies in this thesis aim to investigate a range of benefits and challenges of VR as a training tool for police training. The chapters of this thesis are structured in the following way: In Chapter 2, we present an overview of the organization and delivery of training across European law enforcement agencies. The qualitative study provides insights into the strengths and challenges of current European police training practices.
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