No Pain, No Gain? The Effects of Adding a Pain Stimulus in Virtual Training for Police Officers 4 85 Table 4.1. Descriptive statistics. With Pain Stimulus Without Pain Stimulus Variable Training n M SD n M SD Training Effort Average Heart Rate VR 37 104.55 18.28 50 104.90 14.41 VirTra 37 90.10 14.55 50 89.13 13.02 Maximum Heart Rate VR 37 129.54 20.46 50 128.54 16.54 VirTra 37 121.16 17.79 50 115.40 16.27 Mental Effort VR 80 71.04 23.23 88 70.22 29.02 VirTra 80 74.17 25.22 88 64.13 27.45 Perceived Stress VR 80 61.76 20.27 88 62.11 23.32 VirTra 80 65.38 18.75 88 53.89 20.53 Sense of Presence Spatial Presence VR 39 3.41 0.59 44 3.69 0.46 VirTra 39 3.07 0.72 44 3.11 0.65 Engagement VR 39 3.55 0.57 44 3.73 0.47 VirTra 39 3.51 0.49 44 3.51 0.58 Ecological Validity VR 39 3.44 0.61 44 3.70 0.53 VirTra 39 3.48 0.64 44 3.40 0.71 Negative Effects VR 39 1.79 0.61 44 1.88 0.68 VirTra 39 1.48 0.54 44 1.50 0.47 Note: Average and maximum heart rate in BPM. Mental effort (RSME) on a visual analogue scale from 1 to 150. Perceived stress on a visual analogue scale from 1 to 100. Sense of presence measures on a Likert-scale from 1 to 5. Table 4.2. Results of the 2 (training simulator: VR, VirTra) × 2 (pain stimulus; with, without) ANOVAs on training response measures and sense of presence measures. Training Simulator Pain Stimulus Training Simulator x Pain Stimulus Average Heart Rate F(1,85) = 208.455, p < .001, ηp 2 = .710 F(1,85) = .010, p = .921, ηp 2 = .000 F(1,85) = .393, p = .532, ηp 2 = .005 Maximum Heart Rate F(1,85) = 47.325, p < .001, ηp 2 = .358 F(1,85) = .939, p = .335, ηp 2 = .011 F(1,85) = 2.317, p = .132, ηp 2 = .027 Mental Effort F(1,166) = .313, p = .576, ηp 2 = .002 F(1,166) = 3.048, p = .083, ηp 2 = .018 F(1,166) = 3.059, p = .082, ηp 2 = .018 Perceived Stress F(1,166) = 1.037, p = .310, ηp 2 = .006 F(1,166) = 5.928, p = .016, ηp 2 = .034 F(1,166) = 6.825, p = .010, ηp 2 = .039 Spatial Presence F(1,81) = 24.825, p < .001, ηp 2 = .235 F(1,81) = 2.834, p = .096, ηp 2 = .034 F(1,81) = 1.652, p = .202, ηp 2 = .020 Engagement F(1,81) = 3.186, p = .078, ηp 2 = .038 F(1,81) = 1.013, p = .317, ηp 2 = .012 F(1,81) = 1.553, p = .216, ηp 2 = .019 Ecological Validity F(1,81) = 1.748, p = .190, ηp 2 = .021 F(1,81) = .787, p = .378, ηp 2 = .010 F(1,81) = 3.085, p = .083, ηp 2 = .037 Negative Effects F(1,81) = 20.650, p < .001, ηp 2 = .203 F(1,81) = .261, p = .610, ηp 2 = .003 F(1,81) = .221, p = .639, ηp 2 = .003 Note. Significant results are shown in bold.
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