92 Chapter 4 cell suspensions for subsequent therapeutic application remains a challenge for advancing their use in cell therapy, as well as the development of platforms for high-throughput drug screening. As an example, in the rare disease primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) [183], cultures of basal epithelial cells from patients have been performed in 96 well plates for the screening of different drugs from a reduced starting cell number [184]. Methods to promote the expansion and differentiation of epithelial cells within 3D organoids, only requiring low cell numbers, provide novel opportunities to investigate how these cells behave in health and disease [185]. The translational capacity of preclinical models has recently been highlighted as a discussion point. As 92% of the preclinical trials fail for new lung cancer treatments, it is clear that there is a need to increase the preclinical “confidence” [186]. Therefore, New Approach Methodologies (NAMs) are needed [187]. The main steps that must Figure 2: Summary of the state-of-the-art status of different models used for modelling of different diseases. COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
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