Chapter 3 104 support (Rohner, 2016; Soenens et al., 2015). However, we did not empirically test this theoretical notion, nor did we explore whether age differences might be present in the transactional processes between perceived parental support and adolescents’ depressive symptoms. This thus remains an open question for future research. In addition to sample differences, design differences could have affected the withinfamily effects above and beyond the measurement interval, which is also illustrated by the replication analyses of the three-monthly and biennial processes that yielded slightly different findings. For example, in the bi-weekly study (Dataset 2), questionnaires were specifically designed to reflect on experiences of the last 2 weeks, which may be less suited to assess other timescales. Future studies that include a wide range of time intervals within one sample, but also studies using different instruments and more diverse samples, are needed to test the robustness of current findings. In addition, research is needed with multiple informants and clinical samples to assess the generalizability of our findings. Second, comparing datasets which varied in sample size (from 244 to 1,664) and number of measurements (from 3 up to 15) was challenging. It might be possible that potential within-family lagged effects were not detected because of insufficient statistical power in datasets with smaller samples and/or fewer measurements. Multiple-timescale studies which include many measurements (Orth et al., 2021) as well as large samples, and future meta-analytic work, can provide more precise estimates. Third, especially the shorter timescale samples were largely composed of highly educated two-parent families. Depression can emerge from a complex interplay of risk factors, of which low socioeconomic status is one of them (L. Allen & Astuto, 2009). The extent to which within-family effects differ across more economically diverse samples, is an important topic of future investigation. Fourth, both parental support and negative affect or depressive symptoms were reported by the adolescent. As studies have shown discrepancies between the perception of parents and adolescents in parental support and adolescent well-being (L. H. C. Janssen, Verkuil, et al., 2021; Nelemans et al., 2016; A. D. L. Reyes & Kazdin, 2005), future research should also include parental reports to assess whether results generalize to the perspective of the parent. Relatedly, the parent(s) for which parental support was reported by the adolescent differed per dataset. For three of the five datasets, we used a combination score of maternal and paternal support reports. In the other two datasets, it was measured in reference to both parents (e.g., “My parents were warm and supportive
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