Chapter 4 140 support (L. H. C. Janssen, Elzinga et al., 2021). However, no moderating effects have been found for other adolescent characteristics, such as age, gender, and neuroticism (Boele, Nelemans et al., 2023; Bülow, Neubauer, et al., 2022; L. H. C. Janssen, Elzinga et al., 2021). Thus, parenting effects might thus not always be universal (Grusec, 2008), but under which circumstances and for whom needs to be unraveled. Responsivity to Parenting Might be Outcome Specific A question that recently gained more attention is whether environmental sensitivity is specific to the outcome (Belsky et al., 2007, 2021). To account for this, we included different outcomes, both positive and negative indicators of adolescents’ psychological functioning (Keyes, 2014; Ryff et al., 2006). Hence, our responsivity patterns were based on a combination of three adolescent outcomes. Despite that the adolescent outcomes correlated within the same individuals, the two parenting practices did not predict all three outcomes in all adolescents. To illustrate, 12 of the 67 differentially susceptible adolescents were affected in a for-better-and-for-worse manner in all three outcomes, whereas the others were affected in one or two outcomes. Hence, our results suggest that the specific outcome of parenting might still depend on the person. Even though future studies need to replicate the found responsivity patterns to parenting, both theorized and unexpected patterns, findings emphasize the importance of considering multiple outcomes. This corresponds to the broader multifinality principle in developmental psychology that the same influence can lead to different outcomes in different children (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996). Limitations and Future Research While being one of the first within-family study to assess heterogeneity in parenting effect in such detail, it is not without limitations. First, the number of assessments per person was insufficient to test for N = 1 significance (Voelkle et al., 2012), and therefore we assigned adolescents to different responsivity patterns based on a subjective effect size cut-off (β ≥ .05) (Beyens et al., 2021; Lakens et al., 2018; Orth et al., 2022) rather than significance levels. Hence, the hypothesis was tested with descriptive data. Methods that can estimate data-driven subgroups, for instance DSEM-mixture models (Asparouhov et al., 2017), Markov modelling (de Haan-Rietdijk et al., 2017), or Subgrouping Group Iterative Multiple Model Estimation (S-GIMME; Lane et al., 2019), is a promising direction for future research to replicate current findings and further study individual differences
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