7 Summary and general discussion 199 Most of these meta-theoretical ideas (see Figure 1) about parenting adolescents still lack sufficiently rigorous empirical evidence, however. That is, up until now, most empirical studies applied between-family approaches (for review, see Chapter 2; Boele et al., 2020), estimating parenting effects at the group level. These group-level (betweenfamily) estimates tap into the relative (rank-order) differences between families and have therefore been criticized for conveying little to no insight in the way parents and adolescents within a single family influence each other over time (Hamaker, 2012; Molenaar, 2004). Therefore, many meta-theoretical ideas about the phenomenon of parenting adolescents (i.e., reciprocal dynamics within a family, on various timescales, and varying between families) have remained untested at the right ecological level: the within-family level. Hence, similar as in other fields of psychology (Moeller, 2022), there is an evident mismatch between theory and applied methods in the scientific parenting literature (Richters, 1997, 2021). This theory-method mismatch is problematic because empirical insights of how parenting and adolescent functioning are related at the withinfamily level are vital for properly translating science to practice. Therefore, the overarching goal of this dissertation was to provide novel insights into the complexities of parenting adolescents by applying a within-family approach. To do so, three aims were formulated: (1) to examine how key parenting dimensions are (on average) reciprocally associated with adolescent functioning at the within-family level, (2) to examine such associations on various timescales, and to (3a) quantify and (3b) explain heterogeneity across families in these associations. These aims were addressed by conducting one systematic literature review (Chapter 2) and four empirical studies (Chapters 3-6; for visualization see Figure 2). Here I discuss the main findings of each study (for a summary, see also Table 1) and provide an integrated view, including theoretical and practical implications. I end with a reflection of the strengths and limitations of the studies and provide directions for future research.
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