7 Summary and general discussion 203 was concurrently (and not longitudinally) related to adolescent functioning. If studies found concurrent associations, they often (but not always) provided evidence for theories such as the interpersonal acceptance and rejection theory (IPARTheory; Rohner, 2016) and self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Soenens et al., 2019). For instance, when “the average adolescent” perceived more parental warmth, involvement, and limit setting (Gottfredson et al., 2017; Han & Grogan-Kaylor, 2013; H. J. Janssen et al., 2016), and more rejection and aversiveness than usual (Lehman & Repetti, 2007; Vandewalle et al., 2017), the adolescent simultaneously reported better functioning (e.g., fewer internalizing and externalizing problems). Overall, by summarizing this small body of work, I demonstrated that associations between parenting and adolescent functioning can be observed at the within-family level. Nonetheless, the systematic review made also evident that little was yet empirically known about how parenting and adolescent functioning are reciprocally related within families, because the study of longitudinal time-lagged associations at the withinfamily level was still severely lacking. 1.1 A mix of average parent-driven, adolescent-driven, and reciprocal associations To advance the empirical study of parenting adolescents, I therefore examined the average cross-lagged effects between the four key dimensions of parenting on the one hand and the psychological and affective functioning of adolescents on the other hand (Chapters 3-5). In total, I examined 17 cross-lagged effects (see Table 2). For more than half of the associations (i.e., 10 of 17), I found significant average (first-order) lagged effects between parenting and adolescent functioning at the within-family level. The direction of these lagged effects were parent-driven (3x), adolescent-driven (4x), or reciprocal (3x), varying by dimension of parenting and adolescent functioning. To illustrate, increased psychological control was on average reciprocally related to decreased adolescent selfesteem within families, whereas I found a parent-driven effect of increased psychological control on increased adolescent depressive symptoms. No average lagged effects were found for the other seven associations. Hence, although the findings of this dissertation (see also Table 2) and other work (e.g., Bülow, Van Roekel, et al., 2022; Kapetanovic et al., 2019) indicate that theorized key dimensions of perceived parenting wax and wane with adolescent functioning within families, they do not suggest that dynamic parenting processes are fundamentally reciprocal (Lollis & Kuczynski, 1998; Sameroff, 2009; Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2020). Instead, how parenting and adolescents’ functioning reciprocally influence each other within families might be a dimension-specific process - at least in the average family.
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