Chapter 7 204 Moreover, the findings of this dissertation and other research (e.g., Visscher et al., 2023; Vrolijk et al., 2020) suggest that cross-lagged effects between parenting and adolescent functioning are not homologous across levels (Hamaker, 2012). That is, the average timelagged effects at the within-family level deviate from the between-family lagged effects found in earlier work, especially in terms of the strength and thereby also in the presence of effects. For example, although meta-analytic work has found negative reciprocal between-family lagged effects between parental warmth and adolescent internalizing symptoms (Pinquart, 2017b), I found a negative adolescent-driven lagged effect (but not vice versa) from elevated adolescent depressive symptoms on decreased parental support within families (see Table 2). Accordingly, it is crucial that the previously examined lagged effects at the between-family level are re-examined at the within-family level (e.g., Keijsers, 2016). For instance, prior studies on parenting adolescents have widely applied a standard cross-lagged panel model (CLPM). The CLPM has been criticized for not purely tapping into within-person variation (Hamaker et al., 2015; Lucas, 2023), resulting in underestimated or spurious lagged effects (Lucas, 2023). Given sufficient power, previous findings of CLPMs (Branje et al., 2010; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011) should therefore be assessed again with alternative statistical models, which disentangles between-family variation from within-family variation, such as a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM; Hamaker et al., 2015) applied in Chapter 3 of this dissertation. 1.2 Concluding remarks of aim 1 To conclude, the average sample effects found in this dissertation provide evidence that perceived parenting co-varies on average with adolescent functioning at the same time within families. However, no compelling evidence was found that the dynamic processes between parenting and adolescent functioning are inherently reciprocal (Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2020). Whether perceived parenting and adolescent functioning affect each other over time within the average family might depend on the key parenting dimensions, however. Importantly, as dynamic parenting processes might unfold differently on various timescales (e.g., Granic et al., 2008; Lougheed & Keskin, 2021) and across families (e.g., Belsky & Pluess, 2009; Bronfenbrenner, 2005), more detailed empirical insights are necessary to understand when and for which adolescents certain parenting dimensions and practices are helping or hindering.
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