Chapter 7 218 studies (Chapters 3-6), most parenting scales consisted of relatively few items (e.g., 1 to 5), which had often a lower reliability (<.70) than established scales in earlier between-family studies (e.g., Olivari et al., 2013). Because intensive longitudinal designs are relatively new in parenting science (for reviews, see Chapter 2 and Keijsers et al., 2022), more psychometric work is needed to create both reliable and valid short parenting measures. Relatedly, applied analytical strategies did not account for measurement error, though measurement error is likely also part of observed within-family fluctuations (Schuurman & Hamaker, 2019). Accounting for measurement error in future work is a next step take to improve the precision of effects at the within-family or the individualfamily level. Moreover, family-specific effects were estimated with 26 bi-weekly (Chapter 4) or 100 daily datapoints (Chapters 5 & 6) per family, and recent methodological work suggests that future studies with even larger timeseries may be necessary to more reliably demonstrate “true” heterogeneity across families (Hoekstra et al., 2022). Third, other relevant timescales might not have been included. One important timescale is a real-time momentary timescale. Several theories assume that the dynamic processes between parenting and adolescent functioning also unfold on a momentary timescale (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Granic et al., 2008; Lougheed & Keskin, 2021). To assess such momentary parenting processes within families, future studies can implement an Experience Sampling Method (ESM; Myin-Germeys et al., 2009; Repetti et al., 2015), in which families receive several micro-questionnaires per day. ESM has the potential to measure parent-adolescent interactions with higher ecological validity and lower recall bias than daily diaries (Keijsers et al., 2022). While ESM is increasingly applied in the broader field of adolescent psychology (for a review, see Van Roekel et al., 2019), few ESM studies are conducted on parenting adolescents (for reviews see Chapter 2; Boele et al., 2020; Keijsers et al.,, 2022, but see Bülow, Van Roekel et al., 2022). Hence, an important future direction is the use of ESM to study how parenting and adolescent functioning are intertwined from moment to moment. Fourth, stable time-invariant adolescent characteristics (e.g., gender, personality) were used to explain heterogeneity across families. However, ecological models (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Sameroff, 2010) and dynamic systems perspective (Granic et al., 2008; Smith & Thelen, 2003) highlight that the proximal processes between parenting and adolescent functioning also change and develop over time. Therefore, future studies may want to start examining how the dynamic processes between parenting and adolescent functioning also change within the same families and how they depend on time-varying
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