Chapter 1 22 understood to take place within families (e.g., Darling & Steinberg, 1993), the most common approach to studying these theoretical ideas is with a between-family design (Keijsers, 2016). Between-family approaches often include cross-sectional or longitudinal panel studies, in which one or a few data points per family are collected (see Table 1). Based on such cross-sectional or longitudinal panel data, group-level (between-family level) bivariate associations between parenting and adolescent functioning can be estimated, for example with a correlation or regression coefficient. These between-family estimates indicate relative (rank-order) differences between families (Hamaker, 2012; Keijsers, 2016). For instance, a positive between-family correlation between parental psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms indicates that adolescents who experienced higher levels of psychological control experienced more depressive symptoms on average than adolescents who experienced lower levels of parental psychological control (see Figure 3; Pinquart, 2017b). Figure 3 A between-family association versus a within-family association Parental psychological control Adolescent depressive symptoms min max min max a a a a a a a a b b b b b b b b b c c c c c c c c Family a Family b Family c Between-family association Within-family associations Note. Within-family correlations of three families based on eight measurements, showing a pattern of “universality without uniformity”. Between-family correlation based on the aggregate of each family. By applying a within-family design, it can be tested how parenting and adolescent functioning are associated at the within-family level. Associations at the within-family level show how over-time fluctuations or changes in parenting and adolescent functioning are related within families. To illustrate, a positive within-family correlation between parental
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