2 A systematic review 39 parenting processes may take place (but see Granic & Patterson, 2006), macro theories in developmental psychology (e.g., dynamic systems theory; Smith & Thelen, 2003) suggest that empirical studies need to assess varying timescales to capture the complex dynamic processes between parents and adolescents. Heterogeneity in parenting processes Recent theories have also started to challenge the universality of parenting processes. That is, they challenge whether adverse or beneficial effects of parenting on children’s adaptation are similar in every family. For instance, dynamic systems theory posits that each system (e.g., parent–child dyad) is unique (Granic & Patterson, 2006; Smith & Thelen, 2003), implying that parent-adolescent dynamics may have unique characteristics in each family. Differences between families in their parenting processes may arise through (a) contextual differences, such as socioeconomic status (e.g., Rekker et al., 2017), as proposed by ecological theories (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Sameroff, 2010), (b) individual differences in children’s susceptibility to adverse and beneficial parenting due to personality differences and/or temperament (e.g., Belsky & Pluess, 2009; Slagt et al., 2015), or (c) individual differences in children’s appraisal of parenting practices or coping strategies (Soenens et al., 2015). Hence, based on these theoretical perspectives, the extent to which universal parenting principles exist can be challenged. To empirically address this challenge, the current review summarizes whether the existing studies tested for heterogeneity in within-family parenting processes, for instance through testing random slopes and/or explaining the random slopes by moderators. Studying Parenting Processes: Matching the Methodological Approach to the Research Question Conceptually, reciprocal, multi-timescale, and heterogeneous parenting processes are operationalized as associations between over-time fluctuations in parenting and adolescent adaptation within the same families (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). For example, the internalizing problems of an adolescent might decrease after his or her own parent heightens their supportive behavior towards the adolescent, but also vice versa, in cases that adolescents’ internalizing problems may erode parental support. Nonetheless, until recently, most studies have focused on relative differences between families (e.g., correlation, regression, standard cross-lagged panel model). In such between-family designs, a negative correlation between parental control and externalizing problems indicates that adolescents show less externalizing problem behavior in families in which
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