Chapter 2 56 Moreover, two within-family studies on negative parent-child interaction have been conducted with interpersonal functioning and four with academic functioning. Concerning interpersonal functioning, the studies show that negative parent-child interaction was not concurrently associated with peer problems (Lehman & Repetti, 2007) but was concurrently associated with increases in sibling conflict at the macro timescale (Shanahan et al. 2008). Moreover, regarding academic functioning, three micro-longitudinal studies suggested that adolescents reported more academic problems on days with poorer parent-child interaction (Bai et al., 2017; Lehman & Repetti, 2007; Timmons & Margolin, 2015), and an increase in academic problems was related to poorer parent-child interaction the next day, but not vice versa (Timmons & Margolin, 2015). However, a macro- longitudinal study on school performance (i.e., grades) did not find significant concurrent associations with academic functioning (Lam et al., 2016). Hence, so far, there is some preliminary evidence that academic problems might be related to negative parent-child interaction on a micro time- scale, but insufficient evidence is available with respect to the macro timescale. Four studies assessed the relationship between negative parent-child interactions and physical functioning, all on a micro timescale. In observed interactions, increased father’s anger and decreased father’s dysphoria predicted increases in the adolescent’s heart rate a few seconds later in depressed adolescents but not in non-depressed adolescents. However, in non-depressed adolescents (but not in depressed adolescents) increased mother’s anger predicted decreased the adolescent’s heart rate a few seconds later (N. B. Allen et al., 2012). Moreover, maternal aversive behavior that was rated every minute for 10 min was unrelated to the adolescent’s respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity (Crowell et al., 2014). At a daily level, adolescents reported poorer parent-child interaction on days when they also reported more physical health symptoms, such as headaches and allergies. Negative parent-child interaction did not co-vary with adolescents’ daily cortisol levels or measures at 3-weekly intervals (Kuhlman et al., 2016; Lippold, McHale, et al., 2016). Thus, the studies reviewed here indicated within-family associations of negative parent-child interaction with adolescents’ heart rate and physical symptoms but not with cortisol levels. Time spent together Six studies have investigated the link between time spent together with parents and adolescent adaptation within families, each of them using a different measure of adolescent adaptation. Starting with the macro timescale, Rekker et al. (2015) found that
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