Chapter 7 210 showing that cisgender women are more likely to report insomnia and poor sleep, whereas their sleep architecture tends to show longer sleep durations and better sleep compared to cisgender men (Roehrs et al., 2006; Zhang & Wing, 2006). One of the explanations is that sleep perception is different in men and women, and this difference in sleep perception might also be present in the current study. Therefore, in future research more specific questions could be implemented to determine actual sleep time and sleep timing could also be measured objectively using actigraphy measurements. Overall, our findings show novel evidence for an effect of sex hormones on chronotype. These findings bring up new questions, both on fundamental underlying mechanisms as well as on clinical and behavioral effects of these chronotype changes. Future studies should focus on studying the effects of sex hormones on circadian rhythmicity in the body, through assessment of actigraphy, body temperature, or levels of cortisol and melatonin, to address the underlying mechanisms between sex hormones and chronotype. Furthermore, it should focus on the clinical consequences of changes in chronotype, such as changes in health risk and mental health.
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