65 Fragmentation and Subjectification 1 to a sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity. It emphasizes political, economic, social and cultural interdependency and interconnectedness between the local, the national and the global’ (p. 3). Global citizenship education should seek to ‘equip learners of all ages with those values, knowledge and skills that are based on and instil respect for human rights, social justice, diversity, gender equality and environmental sustainability and that empowers learners to be responsible global citizens’ (Torres, 2017, p. 3). Torres (2017) added that ‘any definition and theory of global citizenship as a model of intervention to promote global peace and sustainable development should address what has become the trade mark of globalization: cultural diversity’ (p. 15). Torres’ (2017) descriptions proved that, within the core of their content, the challenges on the global level do not differ from the challenges that present themselves on the societal level of the nation-state. The problem, however, is not only that their scale becomes much more extensive but also that contradictory civic allegiances emerge. Fostering social cohesion on the level of the nation-state often complicates the need for a joint, cohesive and coherent approach on the global level. To foster an inspiring connection at the Dutch national level, as referenced in the example of the liberal politician Bolkestein above, involves creating a kind of Dutch-ness that is deliberately non-global. Creating a strong sense of belonging in the form of national citizenship implies the creation of an in- and an out-group. To enter elections with the policy proposal ‘America first’ automatically suggests ‘others last’ or, at least, ‘others next’. What the challenges on the global level show is that the stratification of the fragmentation problem renders it so complex that the solutions chosen on one level worsen the problem on another. To describe this dynamic, it is helpful to borrow a term introduced by former Governor General of Canada Adrienne Clarkson. Based on her practical experience with multiple people groups in her home country, including Indigenous groups, she spoke about citizenship as an ever-developing concept, which results in what she termed ‘the paradox of citizenship’ (Clarkson, 2014). This paradox means that different people groups need to deliberately relate to other people groups, despite the visible or intangible differences that might separate them. Turning one’s back on another would be a dehumanising force that affects all groups. It is a kind of prisoner’s dilemma on the level of people groups. Clarkson (2014) explained the paradox of citizenship as follows: It is that we are most fully human, most truly ourselves, most authentically individual, when we commit to the community. It is in the mirror of our community—the street, the neighbourhood, the town, the country—that
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