70 Chapter 1 cultural backgrounds to address the joint challenges of the world (7). This critical subjectification assigns no basic preference to one dominant direction, instead inviting all people to help in seeking the right direction (8). It is important to emphasise that such an ‘invitational model of citizenship’, as I will term it, does not exclude the influences of groups over individuals because it does not seek to sharpen the ongoing atomisation. To conclude this sub-section, it can be stated that thinking about how one sees citizenship must precede one’s citizenship education—as illustrated in the table on this page. If citizenship is nothing less than the art of living together, then citizenship education means inviting students to connect with each other, the community, the society and the world as a whole. Moreover, if global citizenship is to be combined with other civic allegiances (community, society), then the individualistic orientation should be avoided, and when diversity is to be accepted as a matter of fact, then community-based citizenship should enable citizens to combine their individuality with their community, their community with their nation and their national citizenship with their cosmopolitan citizenship. In this way, it should be possible to combine different allegiances within one integral person. This emphasises the need for a wellintegrated, holistic approach to both citizenship and citizenship formation. 7 An example is the perspective-oriented approach developed at the Dutch universities in Leiden and Groningen (Janssen et al., 2019). This approach aims to combine the dominant focus on the curriculum with a focus on the broad personhood formation of students. In curricula and textbooks, questions are mainly treated as clear and simple, singular issues, whereas in today’s world, they are mainly unclear, plural issues with lots of complex relationships involved. Educational examples, however, have to reflect the complex reality, as compared by one of the authors of this approach with a swamp (Janssen, 2017). The perspective-oriented approach aims to achieve three goals in education: opening the world for the person, opening the person for the world and opening people for each other. This resembles, albeit a bit more from the perspective of the subject matter, what Biesta (2022) stated about subjectification and personhood formation as world-centred education, or teaching ‘not understood as the transmission of knowledge and skills, but as an act of (re-directing) the attention of students to the world, so that they may encounter what the world is asking from them’ (p. i). 8 Biesta (2022) referred to the German term ‘Aufforderung’, an invitation in the strong sense of summoning or encouraging (p. 46).
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