73 Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for elementary school teachers: a randomized controlled trial revealed significant effects. Conversely, both systematic reviews on mixed teacher populations (Hwang et al., 2017; Emerson et al., 2017) reported only small effects on teacher self-efficacy. While replication of our findings is warranted, elementary school teachers’ self-efficacy seems to benefit considerably from standard MBSR training. While we did not observe significant enhancements in teacher-perceived pupil-teacher relationships, it’s noteworthy that previous studies included in the meta-analysis by Klingbeil and Renshaw (2018) generally reported small effects. In contrast, concerning classroom climate quality, the effects documented in the meta-analysis (Klingbeil & Renshaw, 2018) were modest, whereas our recent study demonstrated substantial to moderate effects. The mixed study conducted by de Carvalho et al. (2021), exclusively focusing on elementary school teachers, also showcased promising effects on classroom climate quality through classroom observations. A plausible explanation for the absence of effects on pupil-teacher relationships and the larger effects observed in classroom climate quality in our current study might be attributed to the notion that changes in teaching behavior could exert a more immediate impact on overall classroom climate quality than on individual pupil-teacher relationships. Furthermore, behavioral change necessitates time and commences with an understanding of thoughts and unhelpful patterns, a process that evolves during the training and may only result in behavioral adjustments later on (Tang et al., 2015). It’s plausible that changes in pupil-teacher relationships might require an even more extended period to manifest. It is essential to acknowledge that the meta-analysis (Klingbeil & Renshaw, 2018) and systematic reviews (Emerson et al., 2017; Hwang et al., 2017) encompassed numerous smaller studies with a mixed teacher population, and only a limited number included follow-up assessments. Long-term follow-ups are imperative to comprehensively explore the evolution of pupil-teacher relationships, potentially integrating observations or feedback from the pupils’ perspective on the relationship. The observed effects on mindfulness skills, emotion regulation, and self-compassion align with our proposed theory of change. We hypothesized that the intervention’s impact on reducing perceived stress would be accompanied by enhancements in mindfulness skills, emotion regulation, and self-compassion. (Hölzel et al., 2011; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012; Tang et al.,2015; Neff & Dahm, 2015; Neff, 2023). Moderation Moderation analyses revealed no significant effects for any of these variables on the primary outcome at post-treatment. Contrary to our expectations, our findings deviated from indications discovered in a pilot study conducted before this RCT (Lensen et al., 2022). The pilot study suggested that teachers’ past or present psychological problems and the school weight could potentially moderate effects, indicating larger benefits of 4
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