212 school should know and be able to do (quadrant 1), and background knowledge about language (quadrant 3). We compared the contents of these knowledge elements with the ingredients that had emerged from the theoretical framework. On the basis of the analysis we concluded that the current Knowledge Base provides teachers with insufficient theory to teach text structure effectively. We observed the following main shortcomings: 1) The Knowledge Base lacks some essential definitions and an overarching theoretical model on text comprehension. For example, the concepts of referential and relational coherence are not mentioned, and definitions of concepts such as signal word and function word are very sketchy. 2) Several themes are only touched upon, but could and should receive more elaboration. For example, the classification of text types and the link to text goals is clear, but nothing is said about the relationship between text type and text goal on the one hand and text structure on the other. 3) The Knowledge Base contains incorrect information, such as incorrect examples of markers of coherence relations. 4) Due to the division into nine domains, the relevant information on text structure and text comprehension is presented in a very fragmented way. Moreover, the distribution of contents over domains is suboptimal. The findings of this analysis are consistent with results from international research that also show that teacher education programs do not provide sufficient foundations for teachers to apply evidence-based approaches in their teaching of reading and writing, and that teachers feel that relevant skills are taught in isolation (Wijekumar et al., 2019). 4.2 Science teaching materials When it comes to providing high-quality language-and-science integrated lessons with a focus on text structure, teacher knowledge and skills are important. In addition, this calls for the availability of high-quality teaching materials. Analyses of textbooks in other countries show that the quality of these books often leaves room for improvement (Agius & Zammit, 2021; Farris et al., 1988; Jones et al., 2016; Peti-Stantić et al., 2021). To examine the extent to which current Dutch textbooks and workbooks for science education developed for grades 3-6 are suitable for text structure instruction, we analyzed a corpus of teaching materials from seven science teaching programs. For each program we analyzed how frequently four text structures (sequence, comparison, cause-effect and problem-solution) occurred at the text and paragraph level, and to what extent combinations of text structures occurred at both levels. We also looked at the extent to which the texts contained introductions that gave insight into the content and structure of the text, and examined the extent to which the teaching materials contained pictures that matched the structure of the texts. Finally, we analyzed the extent to which the assignments accompanying the lessons lent themselves to text structure instruction. A 213
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